Police Subculture Essay

I will be writing my research paper on police subculture and how the affects of police subculture impact the body of the law and how it relates to crime. Police subculture is an array of standard procedures and values that rule law enforcers activates in relation to their contractual responsibilities. Police officers were ranked the fifth most stressful job in the world. Since police work is very stressful, police officers have to deal with many hostile individuals in the public and therefore they need to defined styles to handle these unique scenarios. What I will be talking about in my paper is since police subculture is so different such as their values, and beliefs police share which sets them apart from other members of society. Overall I will be talking about the beliefs of police subculture psychological cause of police subculture, changing police subculture and how police subculture affects our society. Police officers are people the society normally looks up to as epitomes of discipline and protectors of law and order; however police behavior in recent years has been anything but flawless with that being said there is a rise in the resentment and distrust in the public. The public no longer trusts or respects police officers imposing all sorts of changes against them. Police behavior is indeed hateful in some cases especially where minorities or women are concerned. When we dig deeper into the anthropological and psychological cause of this kind of behavior, we notice that police are influenced by a flawed subculture that profound affects the attitude and behavior of most police officers. With that being said this subculture teaches them certain values and beliefs and on the other, it turns the entire police community into a cohesive group meaning causing cohesion that is essentially alienated from the general public. According to Adler, Mueller, and Laufer (1994) police subculture is a â€Å"set of norms and values that govern police behavior, brought about by stressful working conditions plus daily interaction with an often hostile public.† Police subculture is responsible for giving offers a unique working attitude and mindset. Their character and personality is profoundly altered by the vies and values that they learn from existing in this subculture. The one most important thing we notice about this subculture is the idea of insiders and outsiders that lies at the core of all its values. Police officers are constantly reminded of their role as protectors of peace and order which turns them against the general public as they view everyone outside the police department as a potential criminal or suspect. Police subculture is also essentially characterized by violence as researched indicates that, â€Å"Many officers are exposed to a subculture of violence in which they encounter death almost daily. The average citizen generally does not witness in a lifetime the amount of death and violence a police officer experiences in one month.† (violanti,1995) Dr. James Fyfe, a very well known figure in the world of law education and law enforcement indentified some key issues regarding police sudbulture during a police conference in April 1992. He believed that â€Å" characteristics of the police subculture may be responsible for some of the apparent increase in the frequency of police compkaints. He stated that many police officers feel they are soldiers in the war on crime. Fyfe said that this is a war they cannot win, and the realization of this leads to frustration and anger. â€Å"(Eric Jackso,1992) Police officers are severely affected by the values that this subculture promotes and endorses. For instance, police officers are usually alienated from the general society which puts them at a greater risk of being vulnerable to police subculture. This is because they are regularly reminded of the insider/outsider principle meaning giving rise to certain degree of separation from the public. This separation starts expanding with the passage of time until police officers cannot longer relate to the common society this results in deeper association with police subculture, which ultimately shapes their perspective on others. Another reason they cannot relate to the public is because of the accusations that are imposed against them. The public usually treats then with disgust and disrespect, holding them responsible for corruption and plagues police departments and for  general lawlessness in the society. Fr this reason, police officers seeks validation from other police personnel, wh ich makes the inner subculture more effective and powerful. (Christopher Cooper,2000) Violanti(1995) explains: â€Å" The roots of frustration emanate from the central irony of American policing: Society charges police officers with the task of regulation a public that does not want to be regulated. For individual officers, the resulting frustration is exacerbated by a largely unsympathetic press, a lack of community support, and a criminal justice system that values equity over expediency. A sense of societal isolation often ensues, compelling officers to together in a defensive stance.† While this occupational subculture should have been a source of inspiration, it is actually despised by many including some police officers themselves alter they realize how it damaged their vision and personality. Most police officers are racial biased as recent incidents of police brutality indicate. This is because of women and minorities are seen as weaker groups and when they refused to obey police commands, police officers see it as a direct attack on their authority. This attitude has given rise to some serious cause of police brutality against citizens and one such case was that of Thomas Jones of Philadelphia. Commenting on this case, a former U.S Marine and police officer Christopher Cooper (2000) linked these kind of cases to police subculture saying â€Å"Sadly, in our early tenure as cops, we instructed on the â€Å"code† of the police subculture. These are norms that are almost always perverse. Two such norms were operable in the Jones mob attack. The first was if a citizen runs from one of us, we are to beat him severely. Another is that if a citizen physically hurts one of use, we are to hurt that citizen even more before we bring him to the station. And if that citizen has killed a cop, he shouldn’t make it to the station alive.† The marcho-ism that characterizes police culture is also responsible for cases of domestic violence where police officers were charged for hitting their wives and using force to extract obedience. This is indeed a highly disturbing situation, ehich is posing serious threat that happiness of households where one spouse is in the police department. It has been noticed  that when many police officers are domestic abusers even though they may not define their behavior in these terms. Apart from women and minorities, gay men also face serious prejudice especially if they join the police force. Kirschman(1997) writes: As with women, gay men are presumed to lack such manlu attributes as courage, bravery, and loyalty. And like women, when they demonstrate courage and competence, they threaten the notion that only â€Å"manly† men can do police work.

An Academic Intervention Model

IntroductionThere is a societal division that lies at the bosom of Irish 2nd degree instruction. Students from deprived or lower socio-economic groups tend to rule in the vocational instruction sector while pupils from the higher societal strata seem to swerve towards voluntary instruction ( spiritual ) sector. In England, at the terminal of a kid ‘s primary instruction, normally at the age of 12-14 old ages the Eleven plus scrutiny is administered to pupils. The intent of the Eleven plus scrutiny is to prove a pupil ‘s ability to work out jobs utilizing verbal logical thinking, non-verbal logical thinking mathematics and English. The intent of this scrutiny is to find which type of school the pupil will go to on completion of their primary instruction: a grammar school, a secondary school, or a proficient school. In Ireland, the Primary Certificate scrutiny became mandatory for students in 6th criterion in 1943, dwelling of three written documents in Irish, English and a rithmetic. It was later abolished in 1967 go forthing no tantamount system of streaming. The patterned advance from primary school to secondary school in Ireland has its ain ( less overt ) choice procedure. The choice procedure is that of the parents and the pupils themselves make up one's minding which sort of secondary school they will go to. Second-level instruction in Ireland comprises of voluntary secondary, vocational, community and comprehensive schools. All of these schools offer the Certificate classs prescribed by the Department of Education and Science, enter their pupils for the same national scrutinies and are capable to review by the Department. The determination, hence, on which school to go to, is based on the community ‘s cultural perceptual experience of that peculiar school. There is a class-structured position of instruction which prevails really much within 2nd degree instruction. This category differentiation between the voluntary secondary school and the vocational secondary school is really prevailing. The division has a civilization which associates the more academically capable pupil with the voluntary secondary school and the less academic pupil to the vocational secondary school. A Brief History of Vocational Education in Ireland { In order to understand how this division is present today, when both schools operate the same class course of study, offering the Junior and Leaving Certificate scrutinies. We must look at the development of vocational instruction in Ireland since the late 19th century. } The Vocational Education Act of 1930 was the first major instruction enterprise of the so Irish Free State. Even today, this Act has a strong influence on the execution of current educational policy. The intent of the Act was to set up vocational instruction in Ireland that would offer â€Å" proficient and continuation instruction. † Vocational Education Committees were established in every county and the schools they ran were known as ‘technical schools. ‘ The proficient school offered an alternate to the more academically focussed course of study of the voluntary secondary schools. Up to 1967, the Primary Certificate was the recognized making awarded to pupils between the ages of 12 and 14 on completion of primary instruction. Today, the Eleven Plus continues to be in a more voluntary capacity but more as an entryway test into a specific group of schools, unlike in the yesteryear where it was compulsory in nature In 1924, the Intermediate and Leaving Certificate programmes were introduced into secondary instruction. The Intermediate Certificate test was taken by pupils after a three twelvemonth rhythm. Students so progressed to the Leaving Certificate, which was completed after a farther two old ages. The Leaving Certificate was and still is the choice trial used to derive entree to third flat instruction. In 1947, the biennial Group Certificate was introduced for the vocational schools. It included practical appraisals and teacher appraisals of the pupils ‘ work. This was really different from the single-exam Intermediate and Leaving Certificates. The intent of the Group Certificate was to fix pupils for the employment. Prior to the debut of the Group Certificate, pupils would hold left instruction without any formal making. The debut of the Group Certificate reinforced the societal differences between the two instruction sectors, the vocational and the academic. The practical component of the Group Certificate appraisals and scrutiny reinforced the perceptual experience of vocational instruction as being of a lower value than that of the academic voluntary secondary school. Writing about vocational instruction in Ireland in the 1950s, John Coolahan in his book Irish Education, History and Structure ( 1981, p103 ) has this to state about the Group Certificate: ‘ [ it ] aˆÂ ¦was of a terminal character with small or no transportation value to foster formal instruction. ‘ He goes on to admit the negative perceptual experience of the vocational system. Sean O'Connor in his book, Post-primary instruction: now and in the hereafter ( 1968 ) felt that by comparing to the Numberss go toing voluntary secondary schools that: A little figure of parents, by penchant, sent their kids to vocational schools-mainly in the midlands-so that they might gain the Group Certificate, which offered well-paid occupations in Bord na Mona and the ESB. Otherwise, parents with any aspiration for their kids did non utilize the vocational system. ( p.28 ) . The demand to turn to this instability resulted in the debut of the Intermediate and Leaving Certificate into vocational schools in 1966. The course of study was besides expanded to include topics such as Building Construction, Agriculture, Economics, Engineering and Business Organisation. Although this went some manner to turn to the educational disparity between the two instruction sectors, vocational instruction was still thought of as inferior by Irish societal attitudes in their rating of proficient instruction. The assignment of Donagh O'Malley in 1967, as Minister for Education, brought reform and important alterations to Irish instruction. He broadened entree with the debut of free second-level instruction. He abolished the Primary Certificate, which resulted in the stoping of the narrow focal point on the three Primary Certificate scrutiny topics of Irish, English and Arithmetic. The inaugural greatly increased pupil registration in 2nd degree instruction. In 1972, the school go forthing age was increased to fifteen. By the late eightiess, society ‘s demand for this signifier of proficient instruction refering to trades, industries, commercialism and physical preparation was altering. This was further emphasised in 1989 by the Department of Education who introduced the Junior Certificate into vocational schools. . The debut of the Junior Certificate into vocational schools addressed portion of the makings disparity between the two educational sectors. For the first clip since its enception vocational instruction had equal position at the Junior Cycle as the voluntary secondary schools. Unfortunately, the perceptual experience of vocational instruction as being of a â€Å" lower category † is still apparent even today. Irish societal attitudes still tend to tie in vocational instruction as manual and practical-type instruction. Middle-class parents see voluntary secondary instruction as more esteemed academic-type of instruction which they feel will basically take to their kid procuring greater chances at third-level instruction and finally a white-collar occupation. Vocational schools still make up a important per centum of secondary schools. Of the 730 2nd degree schools in the state, 250 are vocational schools, providing for 30 % of all 2nd degree pupils ( Department of Education and Science 2010 ) . New Section Roscommon Community School, antecedently called Roscommon Vocational School, was in world a low accomplishing school. Morale and outlooks among pupils and instructors and parents was low. The assignment of the current principal caused the attitude of pupils and instructors to better well. Through a series of alterations instigated by him through audience with the pupils, parents and instructors turn toing countries such as pupil subject, general housework: school uniform/appearance, prep, attending, promptness and general behavior, staff preparation, staff motive etc. order returned to the school bettering with it staff and pupil morale. The school has now reached a tableland, and an chance has been created so that the political relations of divisiveness has been neutralised. Staff now have the accomplishments, attitude, vision, and willingness to develop originative ways to learn more efficaciously, wise man and engage parents and better academic accomplishment of the school. New SECTION ( DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE CONCEPTS ) This thesis will try to place the factors that guarantee the effectual running of a school and look into how the â€Å" Academic Intervention Model † she developed, together with the staff and pupils, and the encouragement of parental engagement can develop societal interpersonal accomplishments, self-esteem, academic self-image, academic accomplishment and instructor, parent and pupil positions and attitudes. A schools ranking in the National League Tables is the flagstone of national and community perceptual experience of a school. It is a changeless challenge for a school to project itself in a positive visible radiation. School selling, good pupil classs and the figure of pupils come oning to third degree helps to maintain the pupil registration Numberss up. In the research survey, I will utilize my current topographic point of work as the ‘action research undertaking ‘ and will work with a group of 40 fifth and 6th twelvemonth pupils and their parents over a biennial period. Throughout the research the school will be known by the anonym of Fairhill Community School. Based on school records such as Leaving Certificate consequences, CAO, FAS and Job Applications it is apparent that the school does non bring forth many high accomplishing pupils. Alumnuss of the school would take up employment, apprenticeships or go to an institute of engineering and merely 5 % of pupils would procure a topographic point at university. The writer feels that an action research attack would outdo suit the research intended. Ernest Stringer states that: A cardinal premiss of community-based action research is that it commences with an involvement in the jobs of a group, a community, or an administration. Its intent is to help people in widening their apprehension of their state of affairs and therefore deciding jobs that confront them aˆÂ ¦ Community-based action research is ever enacted through an expressed set of societal values. In modern, democratic societal contexts, it is seen as a procedure of enquiry that has the undermentioned features: It is democratic, enabling the engagement of all people. It is just, admiting people ‘s equality of worth. It is emancipating, supplying freedom from oppressive, debilitating conditions. It is life heightening, enabling the look of people ‘s full human potency. ( Action Research, 1999, page 17 )

Report of Michael Hill Jewellery Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Report of Michael Hill Jewellery - Case Study Example This leadership theory describes two extremes of leadership concern. Concern for production and concern for people, the leader who is concerned for production targets high results and productivity while the one concerned about people care little about productivity and is more concerned about being loved and approved by the people. This theory defines a few types of leaders; the country club leader has the highest concern for people. This type of leaders assumes that if an employee is happy, work will be well carried out. The relationship between the leader and the employee is casual just like that of friends. The impoverished leader is more concerned about productivity as well as the employees. This leader gives little motivation, therefore, leaving the employees confused about their job and find no joy in doing their set duties. The middle of the road leader balances between his concern for the people and productivity. He settles for less satisfying work and the end result is the mediocre performance. There is also the team leader who insists on high levels of production and employee performance. The leader sets goals and assists the employees in meeting these goals. Finally, the authoritarian leader who leads by controlling, overpowering and demanding; the leader is more concerned about productivity and employees are a tool for achieving this productivity. The objective of this model of leadership is to show that when employee and results concerns are high, productivity will increase accordingly. The leadership at MHJ should better understand this theory as it will greatly improve the productivity of the employees and in turn, lead to higher profits. The organization strives to provide the most fun and friendly environment for the employees. They emphasize that just like their collection, each employee is seen as unique with valuable insights and ideas.

Essay 2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

2 - Essay Example Initially I did not take them seriously but eventually this became a daily affair. One day I was even humiliated in front of many patients and was occasionally made the laughing stock. I chose to stay mum on the subject and never reported it to my parents or friends. The abusing in the hospitals grew up day by day and one fine day I was seriously abused in front of one of my junior colleagues. Unable to gulp down the humiliation, I decided to report the instance to the HR manager but he said he was more interested in other important issues and advised me to handle these petty issues on my own. I was totally depressed and started having sleepless nights; I was so annoyed that I sometimes became rude to the patients. Due to this I used to have high blood pressure and as a result I took leave from work quite frequently. I also took leaves with pay cuts just for the reason that I did not want to face those group of bullying nurses. The things started taking a turn for the worse as my mentor came to know about my complaint to the HR manager. As revenge the entire group made up a falsified case against me for which I had no fault. I was reprimanded before the entire staff and humiliated badly. This was the last straw to break the camel’s back and I decided to resign from the job. This decision was extremely painful for me as it meant destroying a dream which I had nurtured as a child. My extent of frustration was so much that I decided to leave this profession forever and joined a lower paid job as a clerk in another organisation. Workplace bullying is often described in the nursing literature as a phenomenon which attracts considerable attention all over the world. Workplace relations have shown profound effects towards the physical health, mental health and the general well being of the employees. It has also been found that nurses who have been exposed to

Destructive Leadership in the Military - Chapter 3 Dissertation

Destructive Leadership in the Military - Chapter 3 - Dissertation Example A valid informed consent is also a requirement by federal regulation, which identifies the eight basic disclosure elements. According to the National Archives and Records Administration (2012), a statement of the contents of the research, its purpose, the expected length of participation, was clearly explained to the potential participants. The informed consent will be given to participants prior to the start of the research. The informed consent will concentrate on the ethical and legal framework of the research. First, a brief will be conducted with the participants to provide essential information about the research. The participants will be provided an opportunity to ask questions which will be answered correctly and broadly. When all participants are thoroughly briefed and have a clear understanding of the study, they will each receive a copy of the informed consent to sign as evidence. A copy of the form will be retained by the researcher, and the other copy given to the respon dent. If any new information arises as the research progress, the participants will be informed The respondents will also be made aware they can withdraw from the research any time before the final dissertation is written. By providing substantial background information, and enumerating the rights of the participants, voluntary, and signed consent of the participants will be obtained. ... Confidentiality The confidentiality of the participants will be of paramount importance, especially in the current case in which the respondents are active members of the Marine Corps and may be working under the very senior enlisted Marines about whom they have provided the information. The following measures will be taken to ensure the protection of respondents. First, the research will ensure that respondents’ names and any other identifying characteristics will not be mentioned in the dissertation, and the collected data will be used only for developing the research analysis. Furthermore, interviews and interviewees will be identified by a generic code and all information that relates to the interviewee will be kept in a secure location for a three-year period from the completion of the study, after which all information and data will be destroyed. A code will be given to all participants who have signed the informed consent. Each participant will be given a code, example (MIL 001) for the first participant up to (MIL 00n) for the nth participant. The participants will be required to identify themselves using the assigned code for every interview or questionnaire administered to them. Once the data collection process begins, participants will not be addressed by name, but by their assigned code, which they will receive prior to the interview process. The participants will not write their names on the interview or questionnaires, and any data that contain the participant’s name will be invalid and destroyed immediately. The confidentiality of the participants is the respondents are active members of the Marine Corps and may be working under the senior enlisted Marine whom they have provided the informationof great importance because it protects them from

Design an Adoption Agreement Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Design an Adoption Agreement - Case Study Example ipants Compensation not to exceed the limits imposed by Sections 401(k), 402(g), 404, and 415 of the Code in effect at the beginning of such taxable year for example, In safe harbor 401(k) plans, all necessary employer aids are always 100 percent bestowed. D. Yes the employer will be making matching contributions because the Actual contribution percentage (ACP) test requires that the employee and matching contributions provided for highly compensated employees be proportional to those for no highly compensated employee. I. Yes a participant may request a distribution of his or her elective deferrals on account of hardship pursuant to the hardship per sue rule since the amount of elective contributions available for a hardship distribution cannot be more than the amount of the employees total elective contribution. A participant may make changes to the investment within his / her individual account quarterly since the rules impose a minimum on the frequency of changes among the three core investment options, requiring at least quarterly changes (Heneghan et al, 2007). An automatic admission 401(k) plan allows you to automatically register employees and place deductions from their incomes in certain default investments, unless the worker elects otherwise. This is an effective way for many bosses to increase their contribution in their 401(k)

Resistance to Civil Government by Henry David Thoreau Essay

Resistance to Civil Government by Henry David Thoreau - Essay Example With a personality that strongly opposes all that which he thinks is wrong, HDT is described as a naturalist or environmentalist, transcendentalist, a pacifist and a tax resister (wikipedia, 2006). It is particularly interesting to note his being a tax resister but not an evader for at length, he argued in his essay why he refused to become a part, to say the least, of a government which he dislikes, or abhor. He also narrated his imprisonment for resisting to pay his tax. For HDT proposes a government with conscience by allowing it, like a non-conscientious corporation to have men in it with conscience. For conscience, as he described, is inherent to all individuals and that individuals must not "resign his conscience to the legislator." HDT bashes the government of his time for "It has not the vitality and force of a single living man; for a single man can bend it to will," meaning that only a handful from an overwhelming majority of citizens control the government like it was their own. He proposes a government with officials or those beholden to it to follow a righteous conscience, of which when exposed to war, and the soldiers and all ranking officers does not will to go and kill or be killed, "peaceably inclined" as he wrote, must not engage in war.

American politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

American politics - Essay Example The conflicts like India-Pakistan, Israel - Palestinians, US-Afghanistan etc are causing immense damage to the economic development prospects of these countries. Many Americans believe that the current financial crisis affected America severely because of the huge expenditure made on war on terror. When globalization initially appears on the horizon, many developing and underdeveloped countries watched it suspiciously. Many people suspected some hidden agenda of the capitalist countries behind globalization. The slogan of collective growth or the principles of globalization put forward by the capitalist countries were considered as a deliberate attempt by the capitalist countries to exploit the wealth and natural resources of other countries. China was the front runner in spreading this message to other countries. However, China is the number country at present as far as the exploitation of globalization is concerned and America is struggling to reap the benefits out of globalization. BRIC countries, Brazil, Russia, India and China are the front runners as far as the exploitation of globalization are concerned. The recent economic crisis affect ted America more than any other countries in the world. While American organizations started to collapse one by one, the organizations in BRIC countries escaped without many damages. American market is exploited by foreigners at present whereas America failed to exploit the global markets as effectively as some of the other countries. Foreign countries invest in American share markets or in Wall Street Firms and they are making a substantial income from there. Moreover, India and China like countries are benefitted immensely by the outsourcing works from America. Obama is trying hard to prevent work outflow or the capital outflow from America. But his efforts are not succeeded yet and still other countries exploiting the resources of America more than America exploiting their resources. In

Business organisations Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business organisations - Assignment Example The scientific perspective may be better known, as it starts with Taylor and the foundation of the scientific methods. This paper will give an overview of the classical (management) era by discussing the scientific and administrative perspectives, the theorists behind each perspective, and the relevance of the classical management methods. Management practices may go back as far as the planning, controlling, directing, and building of the ancient pyramids (Wren and Bedeian, 2009). Starting with the late 19th and early 20th century management theorists who began their work during the Industrial Revolution, the major theorists of scientific (management) perspective believed there is one best way to do everything – and that is the most efficient way. Those theorists believed they could determine that method via whatever means they were using or purported was the best method to study the task. Those theorists of the scientific perspective discussed first are F. W. Taylor, H. L. Ga ntt, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, and Hugo Munsterberg. The Scientific Perspective Frederick W. Taylor’s philosophy led the way for many others in using scientific and mathematical methods applied to workers, attempting to match a person’s abilities to a job in the best way possible, instituting a mutual self-interest mind-set that had never existed and improving employee productivity through incentives (Locke 1982; Wren and Bedeian 2009). Crain (2003) says that Taylor was noted for his scientific approach, his ability to solve problems, and his ability to invent things. His thought was that by being observed and measured the worker increased productivity. In one example, the test subject significantly increased production while receiving more in pay. Taylor’s management philosophy is built on the manager finding the facts, conducting research, and following tradition rather than relying on guesswork and personal opinion or hearsay (Locke, 1982). Chadha (2008) be lieves that Scientific Management is a form of systems thinking integrated with a worker and the work. Taylor was best known for using a stopwatch to time the workers pace to complete a task, but he believed that money is what the workers craved and they were determined to get it. He believed that ultimately improving efficiency improved society. Hodgetts (1995) analyzed ten organizations against Taylor’s principles and found that each organization utilized the principles in some way to stay focused on their quality management strategy. (Williams 2000) Taylor’s four principles summarized are: 1. Develop a science for each part of a person’s work, replacing a rule of thumb method. 2. Scientifically pick and train employees rather than allow employees to arrive and work as they wish. 3. Cooperate with employees to ensure work is done according to scientific guidelines. 4. Divide work as equally as possible. Allow management time to oversee the work of the employee s and shoulder the responsibility of holding others accountable. Henry Laurence Gantt worked closely with F. W. Taylor. Gantt brought a human quality into the scientific side of Taylor’s work. Gantt developed a bonus pay structure for the employee who completed their piece rate work for the day and was able to complete more than the assigned tasks. With Gantt’s methods of the use of incentives for employees production was significantly increased (Wren and Bedeian 2009). Frank Gilbreth used time motion studies where Taylor used a stop watch and was using only time

Conflict Between Reality and Illusion as a Major Theme of ‘the Glass Menagerie’ Essay Example for Free

Conflict Between Reality and Illusion as a Major Theme of ‘the Glass Menagerie’ Essay Over the past century discoveries in physics have revealed a whole new paradigm for life one that you can apply to your life right now to get extraordinary insights, intuitions and results. I believe knowing these principles is crucial for your ability to be ‘tapped in’ to the unseen world that surrounds you. To me quantum physics has always interested me. Since a child, I wanted to know what this world was about, and if I could go deep into understanding the nature of matter that makes up our world, and know what is it made of, then I could understand my own essence and the purpose of life itself. So I set off on an exploration into the area of science known as quantum physics. It is the branch of science that explores the universe at the very tiniest and the very largest of scales. What I found was science is really the new religion. For instance, no one has ever seen an atom even though scientists tell us that’s what all things are made of. Since we cannot see an atom, then we have to accept it from the scientific community based on faith. To me, when you involve faith, even an experimentally confirmed version, you also imply a new religion in a sense. In the past, the masses of people got their meaning of life from religious teachers who taught well-understood spiritual laws. The teachers of religion along with ancient myth tellers were the storytellers giving people the ultimate truth of reality. At some point in history, religion became political and was used more for state control of the masses rather than for providing the truth of reality. When Science was discovered all that changed. Over the past 300 years or so science has made an attempt to start from scratch and rebuild what is true. From Galileo to Darwin these rebels sought the truth yet paid the price for going against the inherent worldview. Inspired by these great leaders more and more people joined the scientific exploration for truth, which led to the forming of institutions and organizations. As with any good intention, when it becomes institutionalized, it can lose sight of it’s main objective and eventually become biased as well. In this case, our modern scientists have focused on what can be seen in the material world and have forgotten or downright ignored other unseen forces such as mind or consciousness as factors in the laws of nature. Most scientists have bought into a materialistic and lifeless universe. Even though there is evidence to the contrary, modern scientists do not want to acknowledge such a paradigm – despite what quantum physics shows. This may be because, if scientists go against the inherent worldview, they create the real potential of losing their reputation along with their university-funded careers, which has been know to happen all too often. Only a handful of open-minded scientists, who are willing to put their reputations and careers on the line, have pursued the truth of reality in spite of the consequences. â€Å"At present, of all the stories, it is the scientific ones that most define us,† writes Lynne Mctaggart, author of her book entitled â€Å"The Field†. She continues, â€Å"Our current scientific story is more than three hundred years old, a construction largely based on the discoveries by Isaac Newton – a universe in which all matter moves within three-dimensional space and time according to certain fixed laws. The Newtonian vision describes a reliable place inhabited by well-behaved and easily identifiable matter. The worldview arising from these discoveries is also bolstered by the philosophical implications of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, with its suggestion that survival is available only to the genetically rugged individual. These, in their essence, are stories that idealize separateness. From the moment we are born, we are told that for every winner there must be a loser. From that constricted vision we have fashioned our world. † The current scientific worldview is simple: We are all separate beings being influenced by random events, surviving from cradle to grave, and that’s pretty much it. There is no before life or after life for us. This reality is all we have, and it is based on random, or cause and affect relationships along an ongoing flow of time. â€Å"Although we perceive science as an ultimate truth, science is finally just a story, told in installments† writes Mctaggart. But the latest installment is quantum physics, which reveals a whole different paradigm. We are all not separate but rather interconnected – called non-local entanglement by these physicists. Unfortunately, quantum physics is considered an anomaly in the scientific community. Because it is such a variant to long held beliefs, most scientists have not incorporated these new-found principles into their respective areas of science let alone their own personal lives. If they did, we would have an updated version of biology, physiology, geology, medicine, psychology, sociology and even theology. We would have a whole new paradigm for life, thus impacting our worldview in every way. Instead, these principles stay isolated into the lonely branch of physics that explores the very tiniest of particles. This whole new view of life would say we are not separate at all, not from each other, not from the solar system we are part of, or the universe we belong to. We are all interconnected at the most fundamental aspect of our nature. We may appear as physical things, but we are more than that, we are processes intimately connected to our environment and to each other. Without awareness of these principles, things look random in our lives, but according to quantum physics they are not. If you would like to learn more about the principles of quantum physics and how to apply them to your life, then you may want to enquire about our monthly gatherings we have in Richmond Hill. This group aims to be the leading think tank for gathering answers to life’s most interesting questions, from the meaning of your life, to exploring hidden forces that heal the body and mind, to discovering answers to the riddles of ancient civilizations. Each gathering will be a special event consisting of a professional presentation followed by a short discussion on various topics of interest in order to explore the answers to life’s mysteries, learn the underlying unseen laws governing your everyday existence, and how to apply this wisdom to transform your life. Each event will enhance your sense of wonder and appreciation for you and the world in which you live. No previous knowledge is necessary and everyone is welcome.

Integrity Ethics And Core Values Commerce Essay

Integrity Ethics And Core Values Commerce Essay Company Secretaries represents the interests of all stakeholders of the company. It is the company secretary who leads the company. Todays business environment is a combination of legal practices, ethics and integrity and best management practices. Company secretaries coordinates the management functions and company policies, keeps an eye on ethics and mutual trust, helps in strategic decisions and aligning the company towards excellence. Integrity, ethics and core values are the most important elements of a business. Every business should have integrity, ethics and core values. Todays business environment includes many frauds and unfair trade practices. This is often happens due to the lack of integrity, ethics and core values. In this article the need for integrity ethics and core values are critically analysed and a brief study has been made. Integrity  is a concept of  consistency  of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the  honesty  and  truthfulness  or  accuracy  of ones actions. Integrity can be regarded as the opposite of hypocrisy,  in that it regards internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs. Integrity means adherence  to  moral  and  ethical  principles;  soundness  of moral  character;  honesty. Integrity as a physical description means unimpaired and complete. Integrity in a person implies honesty, fairness, ethics, and moral character. Integrity refers to wholeness as a human being. It means that you have developed into a person whose thoughts, words, and actions are congruent, and therefore do not conflict with each other. In the exercise of your free will, your decisions reveal any de gree of disorder in your soul. To the extent that you have brought every aspect of yourself into harmony, you can be trusted to live according to your convictions. Although some contend that these convictions are completely individual and can vary widely from person to person, this would mean that even selfish or cowardly people could be said to have integrity.   Like persons companies also have integrity. Business is much related to integrity. In business integrity should be maintained. The business should be simple, moral and accountable. It should protect the interest of all stake holders. Ethics is the science of morality or the systematic study of moral rules and principles. The term morality refers to rules which prescribe the way people ought to behave and principles which reflect what is ultimately good or desirable for human beings. Ethics in business is the one that can regulate the people who are working together. This is also what determined the morale in the business or the company so that when ethical issues arise, the business will not be in chaos. This is something that will control the overall attitude of the business. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations. Business ethics is a form of the art of applied ethics that examines ethical rules and principles within a commercial context, the various moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business setting and any special duties or obligations that apply to persons who are engaged in commerce. Business ethics can be both a norma tive and a descriptive discipline. As a corporate practice and a career specialisation, the field is primarily normative. In academia descriptive approaches are also taken. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the degree to which business is perceived to be at odds with non-economic social values. Historically, interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporate websites lay emphasis on commitment to promoting non-economic social values under a variety of headings. In some cases, corporations have redefined their core values in the light of business ethical considerations. Following ethics is the best way of doing business and serving society. Every business should have ethics. Its an important value of every business. A business should protect the interest of all its stakeholders. A business uses the resources of society. So it must have a responsibility towards the society. The importance of ethics in business can be understood by the fact that ethical businesses tend to make much more profits than the others. An organization, which is well-known for its ethical practices, creates a goodwill for itself in the market.   In simple terms, core values are set conceptions that you decide to follow in your life or in a business. They give an understanding to other entities around you about your way of thinking and living. Core values can be used in our daily lives, for living a clean and transparent life and coordinating with other people. Nowadays, core values are the most crucial aspects of any successful business, as they contribute a lot in the growth of a company. Core values are the very significant components of the identity of any business. They are specialized standards set by a company regarding the method of its functioning, decision making, problem solving, and customer service. The main aim of any company is to attract profit, which can easily be done if clients and customers are impressed by the satisfaction provided to them from the services. And for letting the clients know about the quality of the business, core values of a company essentially have to be set.  There are many advantages that core values bring. The primary benefit of core values is that they let clients and potential consumers know what the company is all about, and clarifies the identity of the company. Core values are points to be considered for maintaining proper corporate relations with the media, customers, public, and other business entities. Core values also aid companies in the decision-making processes. If a company has to take an important decision, it adheres to and considers its core values, after which it goes ahead with the appropriate decision. Core values play an important role in other entities about the goals and motives of the company. In business terms, core values are the rules, regulations, and guidelines that are to be considered for the smooth running of the business. A core value can be anything that the company is best in, such as commitment to providing maximum customer service and satisfaction.   Conclusion Todays business environment faces many problems such as exploitation of resources, fraud, unfair trade practices etc. The basic reasons behind these problems are lack of integrity, ethics and core values. Ethics, integrity and core values helps to protect the interest of all stake holders, increase the goodwill of the company, earn more profit and minimize the regulations. So ethics, integrity and core values are essential for the survival of a company. So every organisation should have these qualities. This will bring many advantages to the organisations and will help to increase the trust of society and government in the company.

The Internet - The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly Essays -- Computer Scie

The Internet - The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly The internet is a computer based global information system. It is composed of many interconnected computer networks. Each network may link thousands of computers enabling them to share information. The internet has brought a transformation in many aspects of life. It is one of the biggest contributors in making the world into a global village. Use of internet has grown tremendously since it was introduced. It is mostly because of its flexibility. Nowadays one can access the internet easily. Most people have computers in their homes but even the ones who don't they can always go to cyber cafes where this service is provided. The internet developed from software called the ARPANET which the U.S military had developed. It was only restrict to military personnel and the people who developed it. Only after it was privatized was it allowed to be used commercially. The internet has developed to give many benefits to mankind. The access to information being one of the most important. Student can now have access to libraries around the world. Some charge a fee but most provide free services. Before students had to spend hours and hours in the libraries but now at the touch of a button students have a huge database in front of them. They can have online discussions with other students as well. There is another aspect of the internet-internet chat. This has opened a doorway to the world. One can talk to people of different nationalities and get to know about their culture and traditions. Problems can be discussed with them. This is especially useful for people who have relatives abroad. It is more expensive to call and talk to them through a normal phone line but the internet has almost done away with that too. Online chatting and voice conferences provide a cheap outlet. One can also see ones loved ones online, all this happening at the same time. This includes electronic mail and online chatting. The internet has brought new opportunities to government, business and education. Governments use it for various processes such as distribution of information and internal communication. Businesses use it to sell and buy products online and also to interact with other businesses. New business opportunities have sprouted because of the internet. Auctions take place and sites like 'e-bay' provide the opportunity for everyone t... ...fered a loss, especially the music and movie industry. Movies and songs are available for free on the internet which has affected the sale levels of artists. People make their own cds and sell them. The phone industry has also suffered because more people are making calls through the internet. Students have also abused the internet by copying other people's assignments and passing them as their own. And there is no way teachers can really catch them because they may have taken it from anywhere on the internet. The internet has been abused in many ways but its use cannot be undermined. Its benefits far outweigh its disadvantages in my view. As the internet continues to grow many challenges have to be met. The growing traffic on the net provides a major hurdle. As more people log on, more highways have to be developed for smooth surfing. There also have to be new laws passed to control the type of information flowing on the internet. Security measures have to be tightened. The most important factor is that people need to be educated on how to use the internet for their betterment. No matter how much governments control, until people develop a conciousness matters will not improve.

Medical Technology and the Separation of Mans Body and Mind :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Medical Technology and the Separation of Man's Body and Mind The human was once whole in days before, but somewhere in his journey to the present, he lost himself. His mind and body have become separate identities that are unaware of each other's existence. Modern society reflects and encourages those thoughts very well, in my opinion. If a person believes his body is broken, ill, or in need of upgrading, he will seek out a medical professional specialized in the area of distress. Arriving to the specialist, the patient demands quick and efficient treatments that will cure/fix/upgrade the weakness in his body; unaware of the effects this may cause him mentally. Once cured of his weakness, the patient is in full working order and is sent back out into the world. That man's procedure for curing his weakness is the same road taken as someone who wishes to fix a toaster, for example. Would it then be safe to say that the man, subconsciously or consciously, considers his body to be more closely related to a tool rather than a part of himself? Unfor tunately, I believe this man is only one person out of an entire society that shares the same dissociation of body and mind. Why do people of modern society not associate themselves with their physical being, and where is this leading us? Moreover, how did this alienation of self come about? I will try to explain the latter of the two questions first, because I believe the answer can be explained through the evolution of medical technology. Traditionally, the main goal of medicine, as in the practice of, has been to cure diseases and prevent death, a classic human vs. nature scenario. To overcome death, which is a part of all the life cycles in the natural world, is virtually impossible. However, I am not here to argue the validity of man's fight with nature. I am trying to explain that the traditional medical community has but one enemy, and its success with that enemy has been limited. However, as time passes, the main goals of medicine start to become questionable. Daniel Callahan addresses some of modern medicines new goals in the fifth chapter of False Hopes. Describing the second great attraction of modern medicine, he writes: Here the aim is not the historical goal of avoiding disease and averting death, but of using the knowledge

Internet Hackers :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Hackers Last year, two Cloverdale teenagers pleaded guilty to federal charges. What did they do that the FBI raided their homes and seized their computers? They hacked into Pentagon computer systems. These two teenagers, Makaveli and TooShort, were also suspected of breaking into computers at universities, government agencies and military bases. This example and many others show the increase of hackers and their crimes over the years. In another story that is similar to the story about Makaveli and Too Short, from a BBC News story, Hackers target Nasa and Pentagon, an international group of computer hackers broke into Pentagon computer systems and also said they had stolen key software from Nasa. The group consisted of eight Americans, five British and two Russians. They called themselves the "Masters of Downloading." They were considering selling the information to international terrorist groups or foreign governments. The number of hacker related crimes seems to be increasing y ear by year. Theft on the internet is costing companies billions, and the high-tech industry is struggling to stop it. According to Michael Meyer's Crimes of the "Net", last year roughly $2 billion worth of software was stolen over the internet last year. Also that year, the leader of an international piracy ring operating out of Spain, pleaded guilty to a brand of fraud destined to become commonplace. According to U.S. investigators, they stole 140,000 telephone credit-card numbers. Hackers used the numbers to make a total of $140 million worth of long-distance phone calls. Now, the question is who is really at loss here. The answer is simple. Companies like GTE, AT &T, Bell Atlantic and MCI. Because of these hackers, those companies lost a lot of money. What actions must be taken to stop these theives? According to the hackers, they call what they are doing sharing. Hackers are criminals that steal from others to better themselves. They are leeches, feeding off ot her peoples' personal items. People have to become aware of the risk they face with hackers. Software and phone cards isn't the end of the stealing hackers. Everything from computer parts to flowers and teddy bears are at risk to hackers. With the increasing technology, the abuse is almost endless.

History Of A Transparent Membrane Health And Social Care Essay

A regular flow of aqueous temper base on ballss through a squashy tissue, known as trabeculate net, and Schlemms canal. Flexing of the TM pumps aqueous temper from the anterior chamber to SC through a series of valves crossing SC. The valves deliver the aqueous temper further on to venas in the sclerotic coat [ 38, 50, 51 ] . The aqueous flow is controlled and powered by the force per unit area difference during systole and diastole of the cardiac rhythm, the respiration, eye blink and oculus motion [ 51 ] . The abode clip of about 100 proceedingss of the fluid allows the exchange of foods and waste to and from the lens and cornea [ 43, 52 ] . A force per unit area bead of about 0.8kPa ( 6 mmHg ) occurs as the aqueous temper progresses into the aqueous venas but this force per unit area bead can increase drastically in eyes affected by glaucoma [ 52 ] . Figure 2-8 illustrates how a force per unit area addition causes the aqueous valves within the TM to compact, diminishing the lms dr astically and cut downing outflow and hence doing an accretion of AH taking to still higher IOP [ 51, 53 ] . The maximal force per unit area that can happen in an orb is set by the highest force per unit area degree in the ciliary arteria, which is, on norm, about 60mmHg ( 8.0kPa ) ( Figure 2-6 ) . Beswick et Al. [ 54 ] and Heys et Al. [ 55 ] define the trabeculate net permeableness ( kTM ) which they estimate to be 2.1 A- 10-9ms-1Pa-1 for normal IOP. The cornea is a crystalline membrane and belongs to the external portion of the outer hempen adventitia. The chief map of the cornea is to refract light into the oculus. The curvature of the cornea is greater than the remainder of the oculus and the junction with the sclerotic coat is known as sulcus sclerae. The thickness of the cornea varies between 1.2mm and 0.5mm from the outer ring of the cornea, the sulcus sclerotic coat, to the Centre. The cardinal corneal thickness ( CCT ) varies by +/-20 % between persons [ 13, 56 ] . Feltgen et Al. [ 57 ] reported that they had measured CCT in 72 patients and found a scope of 0.448 to 0.713mm. Elsheikh et Al. [ 58 ] have used CCT values of 0.32mm to 0.72mm in their numerical theoretical account to imitate distortion differences of the cornea when using an applanation device ( Goldman applanation tonometer ) . Doughty and Zaman [ 56 ] calculated the CCT from 300 informations sets from literature ( from 1968-1990 ) and calculated the CCT for corneas which were designated as normal and found the norm to be 0.534mm. The radius of curvature of human corneas has been found to be 7.9mm [ 56, 57, 59 ] . The cornea consists of 5 beds: the corneal epithelial tissue, the anterior modification membrane ( Bowman ‘s membrane ) , the chief organic structure of the cornea, substantia propria, the posterior modification lamina and the endothelium of the anterior chamber ( Figure 2-9 ) . The Young ‘s Modulus of cornea has been measured utilizing a assortment of trial methods. Smolek et Al. [ 61 ] , for illustration, have applied an internal force per unit area to human orbs in vitro and have measured the ensuing radius of curvature. They so calculated the Young ‘s Modulus utilizing LaPlace ‘s Law, i.e. presuming that the orb behaves as a thin-walled domain with changeless radius of curvature and wall thickness: where P is the known force per unit area in the orb, R is the known mensural curvature radius which can be rearranged to strive in the cornea and T is the known mensural cardinal cornea thickness. In the force per unit area scope of 2.1kPa ( 16mmHg ) to 2.8kPa ( 21 mmHg ) they found Young ‘s Modulus to be changeless at 1.03GPa. Hoeltzel et Al. [ 37 ] carried out uniaxial cyclic tensile trials on four cornea strips cut from human eyes of mean CCT 0.82mm, length 10mm-30mm and width about 2mm. The samples were tested up to strains of 0.08 % at a strain rate of 2.7A-10-4s-1 to 8.3A-10-4s-1 depending on sample length ( changeless distortion rate 0.05mm/min ) . To qualify the information, the same power jurisprudence was used as Hubbard and Chun [ 37 ] ( Equation ( 2-1 ) ) . The value of I? was about changeless at near to 2.0 for all 4 cyclic burdens, co-occuring with the power coefficient for collagen obtained by Hubbard and Chun. The I ±-value increased from 54.32MPa for the first rhythm to 98.97MPa for the 4th rhythm. The tangent moduli to the emphasis degrees of 6.4kPa and 260kPa were 0.34MPa and 0.56MPa severally, approximately tantamount to internal force per unit areas of 1.3kPa and 53kPa ( 10mmHg and 400mmHg ) severally. Elsheikh et Al. [ 62 ] presented values of Young ‘s modulus in relation to intraocular force per unit area and age. They used a cornea-sclera subdivision and applied force per unit areas up to 3.1kPa ( 35mmHg ) . Three different age groups ( 50-64, 65-79, 80-95 ) were tested and two different rates of addition of force per unit area were used ( 37.5mmHg/min and 3.75mmHg/min ) [ 63 ] . The consequences can be seen in Figure 2-11 and demo a clear decrease in Young ‘s modulus for lower rates of addition of force per unit area and a clear addition in Young ‘s modulus with age. All the measured Young ‘s moduli were in the scope of 0.16MPa and 0.96MPa. FEM simulations of the cornea have shown that values below 0.01MPa are non realistic due to the fact that the curvature radius would increase to twice that of the unpressured status when pressurised with 2.1kPa ( 16mmHg ) and that would imply a 400 % volume enlargement [ 59 ] . The big fluctuation in the mensural belongingss reviewed above can be explained with the different trials used to mensurate the belongingss ( rising prices and tensile testing ) and the extremely visco elastic behavior of the cornea which leads to a nonlinearity of the stress-strain curve and sensitiveness to fluctuations with strain rate. Therefore the â€Å" known † Young ‘s modulus varies from 0.01 to 1000MPa [ 54, 58, 59, 61, 64-67 ] . In simple footings, aqueous temper flows from the posterior chamber through the posterior tract ( spread between lens and flag ) to the anterior chamber and drains at that place through the trabeculate net ( Figure 2-10 ) . Glaucoma is defined as the status whereby aqueous temper is non able to run out at the normal rate through the trabeculate net. Even though the escape is limited, the production of aqueous temper in the ciliary organic structure continues and this leads to a force per unit area addition in the orb. The force per unit area addition distorts soft tissue within the oculus because the oculus can non freely spread out due to the hempen coating around the sclerotic coat. If the force per unit area in the oculus reaches dual its normal force per unit area of about 2kPa ( 16 mmHg ) , deformation of the nervus fibres Begins and the ocular field reduces or becomes out of focal point. Because the ocular nervus has to go through through all three adventitias ( hempen adventit ia, vascular adventitia and nervous adventitia ) , it is non enclosed in connective tissue and this makes it vulnerable to damage in glaucoma [ 38 ] . If glaucoma can be recognized at its early phases, it might be treatable utilizing drugs which cut down the production of aqueous tempers and/or constrict the student and put the border of the flag into tenseness which makes its surface more permeable to aqueous temper [ 68 ] . whereas secondary glaucomas are those where the addition in IOP is due to injury, redness or tumor of the orb. The two most common types are primary unfastened angle glaucoma and primary angle closing glaucoma. Primary open-angle glaucoma ( POAG ) is the taking cause of sightlessness [ 69, 70 ] . It can be characterised by an intraocular force per unit area above 21mmHg, an unfastened, normal looking anterior chamber angle, no eyepiece or systematic abnormalcy that might account for the raised IOP and typical glaucomatous ocular field and ocular nervus harm [ 71 ] . Figure 2-12 shows the addition of IOP caused by POAG. The black pointer shows the flow of aqueous temper from the posterior chamber to the anterior chamber. When the fluid reaches the trabeculate net it can non run out through the TM due to blockage and the force per unit area increases in the orb. Patients with primary angle-closure glaucoma ( PACG ) besides exhibit an addition in IOP ( higher than 21mmHg ) , the oculus is ruddy and the student is mid-dilated. To prove whether the trabeculate net is blocked by the flag it is necessary to measure the anterior chamber angle. Figure 2-13 illustrates how the flag can contract the angle between itself and the cornea thereby barricading the escape of aqueous tempers through the TM [ 71, 72 ] .

Sex Tourism

Gender and the Economy of Sex Tourism In Kenya’s Coast Province Introduction â€Å"Sex tourism requires Third World women to be economically desperate enough to enter into prostitution; once they do so, it becomes difficult to leave. The other side of the equation requires men from affluent societies to imagine that African women are more available and submissive than women in their own countries. Finally, the industry depends on alliance between local governments in search of foreign currency and local foreign business willing to invest in sexualized travel† (Enloe, 2000:36). Otherwise known as sex prostitution, sex tourism is tourism for which the main motivation of the trip is to consummate or engage in commercial sexual relations (Graburn 1983; Hall 1991; Ryan and Hall 2001). The number of men and women travelling to Third World countries seeking sex tourism has increased tremendously (Herold et al. 2001). In the past, notorious sex destinations have been mainly the South East Asian countries, today it has spread to other regions of the world including Kenya, Tunisia, South Africa, Brazil and The Gambia (Ryan and Hall 2001, Enloe2002; Chissim 1996). This paper discusses gender and the political economy of sex tourism on the Kenyan Coast, its health and socio- economic impacts. International Tourism and Sex Tourism in Kenya Tourists visit Kenya because of several reasons including its beautiful landscape, wildlife safari, the humid climatic conditions along the Kenyan Coast and the beautiful Coastal beaches. International tourist arrivals in Kenya have been increasing tremendously from 69 million in 1960 to 160 million in 1970, 458 million in 1990, and 625 million in 1998 (WTO, 1999). This increase has led to massive increase in sex tourism, a condition evidenced by inclusion of Kenya among the world’s leading sex tourism destinations (Vatican 2003; Boston Globe 1995; East African Standard 1995 and Chessim 1996). Although not officially stated, a good percentage of foreign tourists who visit Kenya often indulge in sex tourism during their trip (Chissam 1996; Sindiga 1999). These tourists mainly come from Germany, the UK, Switzerland, Italy and France. Others are from North America, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and European countries such as Spain and Sweden. Many of these countries have been generating sex tourists to some of the world’s renowned sex tourism destinations such as Thailand (Ryan and Hall 2001). Hence we can conclude that they are likely to engage in the same activity while in Kenya. Kenya is a developing country with agriculture contributing 24. 0% of GDP. Overall, Kenya’s economic performance has been declining since early 1990’s. The country’s per capita is about US$ 260 and more than 70% of Kenyan population currently lives below the poverty line; the worst hit are women (CBS 2001). The Economics of Tourism and Sex Industry The main economic activity in Kenya at independence in 1963 was Agriculture whereby the country relied on cash crop exports. After independence, the government tried to diversify the economy by implementing an â€Å"open door† economic policy to attract foreign investment. However, the limitations of agricultural and manufacturing sectors coupled with the appreciation of employment potential forced Kenyan government to turn to tourism as a central industry. Since 1987, tourism industry has been the leading foreign exchange earner, (CBS 2001) surpassing the traditional export crops of coffee and tea (Gakuhu1992; Weaver 1998 and CBS 2001). The industry employs about 1. 5 million Kenyans, approximately 8% of wage earning labor force (Weaver, 1998 and CBS 1999). In addition, Tourism is linked to many domestic industries and it is a potentially useful tool for generating development in neglected areas. The industry also contributes substantially to government revenues through taxes and import duties. Tourism is therefore officially promoted in Kenya as the main foreign exchange earner, source of employment and general development. Its significance on the Kenyan economy has a lot of bearing on tourism policies including those related to sex tourism. Sex Tourism Market on the Kenyan Coast Sex tourism is believed to be increasing at a high rate in Kenya. This is mainly because of the reality that there is a sex tourism market for female and male tourists. Female tourists, mainly from European countries come to Kenya to meet with local beach boys because they imagine that black men (or men of color) are stronger and more active in bed than men in their home countries. On the other hand, male tourists come to Kenya to meet with black women; mainly young girls who are believed to be ‘hot’ in bed. Child prostitution is also emerging in Kenya involving young boys and girls. This is commonly along the Kenyan coast where many children choose not to go to school but instead go to beaches in search for white men and women from European countries who exploit them sexually. The Kenyan Coast located along the Indian Ocean caters for about 66% of Kenyan tourism activities. Sex tourism is a major activity in Kenyan Coast (Sindiga 1999, Migot-Adhola et al 1982; Bechmann 1985). The Kenya coast as a tourism destination has existed since 1920 attracting mainly the white settlers and colonial government officials who sought holiday excitements. Major tourist attractions at the Kenyan coast include the wildlife, white sandy beaches, sun, sea, sex, scene features, diverse cultures, hospitable people, historical sites, national museums, national parks and reserves near the coast and tourism facilities of international standard such as hotels and airport. The presence and availability of Britons, Germans, Italians, Americans and others in Mombasa and other coastal towns in search of rest, fun and recreation has been the main factor attracting Kenyan girls and children to get involved in sex tourism (Sindiga 1999 and Chissim 1996). Different Forms of Sex Tourism Sex tourism sometimes involves production of videos featuring nude dancing in which no direct physical contact occurs; the tourists engage in voyeurism. There are also casual prostitutes or freelancers who move in and out of prostitution depending on their financial needs. In this case, sex tourism may be regarded as incomplete commercialized and the relationship between sex worker and the client may be ridden with ambiguities (Cohen 1982; Ryan and Hall 2001), particularly if the relationship shifts from an economic to a social base. However, some women entering into sex tourism in Kenya are not financially needy but only seeking fun and ‘social class’, whereby the community views women seen socializing with white men with high esteem and associate them with wealth and success in life. Some of these women have jobs in noble professions while others are college students. There is also the more formalized form of prostitution where the workers operate through intermediaries. Since sex tourism is illegal in Kenya, prostitutes use entertainment establishments such as night clubs, bars, beaches and other retail outlets to get customers. The other type of sex tourism is that of bonded prostitutes. This is more of slavery because it is enforced by people such as family members through abductions and kidnapping. Motivation Factors: Why do Tourists Look for Sex Most tourists tend to behave differently while in the countries they are touring. This is because there is an assurance of anonymity, which releases them from the usual restraints, which determine their behavior in their home countries. Tourism allows people â€Å"to lose their identity† and gives them the freedom to escape realities and live their fantasies. They spend more money, relax more, drink more, eat more and get involved in pleasures they would not at home. Men who would never visit brothels in their home countries will end up doing so in a foreign country where there is negligible chance of detection and penalty. For the same reason, women who would never have sex with boys young enough to be their grand children at their home country would do so in a foreign country. Tourists tend to seek commercial sex services in Kenya because the services are readily available and quite cheap compared to what they would pay for such services in their home countries. Such tourists are able to enjoy lifestyles they could never enjoy in their home countries. Furthermore, some of these tourists may hold menial jobs in their industrialized home countries but because of the disparity in salaries and high exchange rates, they may appear comparatively rich when in a poorer country like Kenya. They would therefore tend to spend their money in sexual activities that they associate with the rich and the famous in their home countries. Chissim has illustrated this in his interview with a German tourist visiting Kenya (Chissim 1996:18). â€Å"†¦. Morco said he was in Kenya for a month but within four days, he boasted of already fucking five girls. He said he fucked one girl on the beach but pretended that he had no money, so he got that one for free. Another girl he fucked on the beach for 100/- (about $1) and told her that he had no more money. The others he said he had to pay 200/- (about $3) †¦Ã¢â‚¬  For some of these tourists, Kenya represents Africa where life is perceived as raw and wild and a place where people are uncontrolled, liberal and polygamous. These reasons partly explain why some European women visit Kenya to look for sex from beach boys young enough to be their grandsons. It is estimated that more than 5% of all European women who visit Kenya go in search of sex, especially those from German, Switzerland and Italy (New York Times Feb. 14, 2002). Many Kenyan communities highly value virginity. This motivates tourists to have sex with younger girls; in the anticipation of having sex with a virgin who may be free from HIV/ AIDS. Some tourists engage in sex tourism because they may be fleeing from unhappy relationships at home and, perhaps, from women who may tend to question male domination. Male supremacy is perceived as a natural kind of authority in many cultures and world religions. Cultural values defining traditional male sex roles are power, dominance, strength and supremacy, while those defining female roles are submissiveness, weakness, inferiority and passivity. Women are perceived as property of men and sex as exchange of goods, which further entrenches male supremacy. This notion also teaches men that females are worthless and less deserving and may be treated as objects of men. The mafia- style drugs and sex industry along the Kenyan coast is another motivating factor for sex tourism. People with a lot of money are capable of bribing their way out of trouble if caught Such people are also responsible for organizing sex services for clients outside the country (Sindiga 1999; Chessim 1996). Supply Factors: Why Do Sex Workers Get Involved â€Å"Many times I don’t feel anything during sexual encounters. It is because I need money for myself and my children that I keep doing it. I have learned to do motions mechanically in order to satisfy my clients. If I do it well, they will come back and that means more money. † (Lin Lean Lim 2000:74). This Filipino woman quoted by Lin Lean Lim expresses the reason why many women from Third World countries practice sex tourism and their feelings about sex work. The main reason for sex tourism for many is poverty. Many Kenyan women are economically desperate. With the increasing rate of unemployment and high cost of living, prostitution is left as the only option for them to earn a living and support their children. Such women migrate to coast with hope of finding white tourists who can pay more for the services or even may end up marrying them. Some girls involved in sex tourism come from broken homes or very poor family backgrounds and are never taken to school to attain formal education. They resolve to sex prostitution as a means of supporting themselves economically. In Kenya, women are generally poorer than men because women have limited access to resources such as land, capital, farm equipments and agricultural inputs. Inheritance practices in most Kenyan communities seem to favor men. This means that men can easily have access to other productive resources because they can use land as security to borrow money if needed to purchase other productive resources. This option is normally not available for women. In many Kenyan communities, illiteracy levels in women are higher than those of men. This is because parents give priority to boy’s education particularly if resources are limited. Along the coast, education is not valued because people from these areas are used to receiving tokens and money from the tourists. Children of school going age therefore prefer to go to beaches in search for tourists who give them tokens in exchange for sex. Other factors affecting education for girls include unwanted pregnancies and the fact that they are forced to early marriages by their parents for economic gains. Kenyan women are discriminated against in most areas of formal employment and more often left with poorly paid jobs or no jobs at all. This makes prostitution an alternative. The HIV/AIDS scourge in Kenya is estimated to claim 500 lives daily leaving many orphans. The young children left become heads of the families and may often turn to sex tourism and prostitution as a means of earning a living to support their siblings. Impact of Sex Tourism in Kenya Sex tourism can be seen as both a risk and an opportunity. Most women in sex tourism face the risk of material loss because their clients may not pay them for the services (ref. The Marco case). Women are generally helpless against such exploitation and take it as part of their business. Sex workers face the risk of losing their money to thieves and police because they have to bribe their way out if caught as they mostly work at night. Women can sometimes face attacks by dissatisfied customers. These attacks may be in form of rape, cruelty, violence or even murder. â€Å"Monica Njeri was a 32- year old mother of two and a prostitute in Mombasa. She was brutally murdered by Frank Sundstrom a 19 year old USA navy service man who wanted the kind of sex that Monica could not provide. When he was not satisfied with merely sleeping, he woke up and tried to steal back the money he had given to her plus her own money but she woke up and caught him in the act. In ensuing struggle, he broke a beer bottle to make a weapon and repeatedly stabbed her until she died. † (Migot- Adhola 1982:74). Although Sundstrom admitted the offence, his only sentence was to sign a bond of 500/- (equivalent to US$46 at that time) to be of good conduct. Women in sex tourism industry and prostitution are continually exposed to sexually transmitted infections including HIV/AIDS. Many tourists may not accept to use protection such as condoms because they argue that it interrupts the flow of sex and carrying it may imply that one is promiscuous (Clift and Grabowski 1997). Sex workers are also faced with the danger of susceptibility to anal or cervical cancers, additionally, since many women are forced into sex work, many of them only work under influence of drugs and/or alcohol. This may lead to depression or alcohol addiction. Sex tourism has been blamed in Kenyan coast for increasing rate of school drop-out, poverty and illiteracy. This is mainly because children of school going age choose not to school but to follow tourists who lure them to sex tourism. However, some women that have risked sex tourism have been able to build better houses and invested in urban businesses. This is largely because earnings from prostitution are often more than those from other alternative employment opportunities open to women. Sex workers contribute to national economy by boosting profits of many transnational hotels and airlines, taxi drivers, brothel owners and many other intermediaries. The Kenyan police, the state, as well as the local and international enterprises are well aware that sex has a market value even though they proclaim that prostitution is immoral (Ryan and Hall 2001). Sex tourism has also contributed to cultural exchange because many sea workers are forced to learn foreign languages so that they can communicate with their clients. There are occasions when these temporary relationships ave led to marriages hence removing such girls from prostitution. The other positive impact is that health workers are encouraged to go for regular medical checkups because of the nature of their work, hence paying more attention to their health. Bibliography Awanohara 1975. Protesting the sexual imperialists. Far Eastern Economic Review, 87 (21st March) PP 5-6. Bishop, R. and Robinson, L. S. 1998. Night Ma rket: Sexual cultures and the Thai Economic Miracle, London and New York: Routledge. Boston Globe Thursday November 23, 1995 Cater, E. A 1989 â€Å"Tourism in less Developed Countries†. In Annals of Tourism Research Vol. 16 No. 4. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), 2001 Economic Survey of Kenya. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), 2002 Economic Survey of Kenya. Chissim F. 1996. An exploratory and Descriptive Research on Child Prostitution and Tourism in Kenya. EPAT Report, Nairobi. Clift S and Grabowski, 1997 Tourism and Health: Risks, Research and Responses. Biddles Ltd, Guilford and King’s Lynn Cohen, E 1988. Tourism and AIDS in Thailand. Annals of Tourism Research, 15 (4), PP 467-86 Cohen, E. 1982. Thai Girls and Farang men: The Edge of Ambiguity Annals of tourism Research, 9 (3) PP 403-28 Collins Patricia Hills 2000. The Sexual Politics of Black Womanhood. In Disch Estelle(ed). Reconstructing Gender. A multicultural Anthology. Mayfield publishing East Africa Standard September 12, 1995 Enloe, Cynthia (2000) â€Å"On the Beach; Sexism and Tourism† in Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of the International Politics: University of California press (2nd edition) Pp 19-41 Enloe, Cynthia 2002. The prostitute, the colonel and the Nationalist, in: Enloe, Cynthia: Maneuvers: The international politics of militarising women’s lives: London and Los Angeles: University of California Press (2nd Edition) pp 19-41 Ennew, J 1986. The sexual exploitation of children. Polity press, Cambridge Fish, M. 1984 Controlling Sex Sales to Tourists: Commenting on Graburn and Cohen. Annals of Tourism Research 11(4) 615-617. Gakahu C. G and Goode B. E 1992. Ecotourism and Sustainable Development in Kenya. Wildlife Conservation International. Graburn, N. H 1983. Tourism and prostitution, Annals of Tourism Research, 10:437-56 Hall C. M. 1994. Nature and Implications of Sex tourism in South-East Asia in: V. H. Kinnaird and D. R. Hall (ed) Tourism: A Gender Analysis Chichester, John Wiley PP-142-163 Harrison, David 1992, (ed) Tourism and the Less Developed Countries. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. Jommo, R. B (1987: Indigenous enterprise in Kenya's tourism industry Geneva: itineraires etudes du development , Institute Universitaire d'Etudes du Development). Lim, Lean Lin 1998. Whither the sex sector? Some policy considerations University of California press, pp 49-108. Migot-Adhola, S. E et al ,1982. Study of Tourism in Kenya with emphasis on the attitudes of the Residents of the Coast. Institute for Development Studies Consultancy Report No. 7, Nairobi University Montgomery Heather 2001. Child Sex Tourism in Thailand: In D. Harrison ed. Tourism and the Less Developed World Issues and Case Studies. Pruitt. D. and Lafont S. 1995 For Love and Money: romance tourism in Jamaica, Annals of Tourism research 22(2); 419 – 440. Richter, L. K. 1995. Exploring the political role of gender in tourism research. In W. F. Theobald (ed. ) Global Tourism in the next decade. Oxford Boston: Butterworth Heinemann. Ryan Chris and Hall C Michael (2001): Sex Tourism: Marginal People and Liminalities Routledge London Ryan Chris (1991) Tourism and Marketing. A symbiotic Relationship? Tourism Management Journal pp 101-109. Butterworth –Heinenmann Ryan. C. and Rachel Kinder (1996). Sex, tourism and sex tourism: fulfilling similar needs? Tourism Management 17(7): 507-518. Elservier Science Ltd . Sindiga Isaac 1999: Tourism and African Development: Change and Challenge of Tourism in Kenya. African Study Centre. Leiden The Nertherlands Truong, Thanh-Dam 1983. The dynamics of sex tourism. The case of South-east Asia. Development and change 14, 533-53. Weaver, D. B. 1998 Ecotourism in less developed world. CAB International World Tourism Organisation,1999. Yearbook of Tourism Statistics. WTO, Madrid, Spain. Young, G. 1973. Tourism: Blessings or Blight? Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin. The Vatican representative to WTO (2003). http://www. cathnews. com/news/304/43. php Sex Tourism Gender and the Economy of Sex Tourism In Kenya’s Coast Province Introduction â€Å"Sex tourism requires Third World women to be economically desperate enough to enter into prostitution; once they do so, it becomes difficult to leave. The other side of the equation requires men from affluent societies to imagine that African women are more available and submissive than women in their own countries. Finally, the industry depends on alliance between local governments in search of foreign currency and local foreign business willing to invest in sexualized travel† (Enloe, 2000:36). Otherwise known as sex prostitution, sex tourism is tourism for which the main motivation of the trip is to consummate or engage in commercial sexual relations (Graburn 1983; Hall 1991; Ryan and Hall 2001). The number of men and women travelling to Third World countries seeking sex tourism has increased tremendously (Herold et al. 2001). In the past, notorious sex destinations have been mainly the South East Asian countries, today it has spread to other regions of the world including Kenya, Tunisia, South Africa, Brazil and The Gambia (Ryan and Hall 2001, Enloe2002; Chissim 1996). This paper discusses gender and the political economy of sex tourism on the Kenyan Coast, its health and socio- economic impacts. International Tourism and Sex Tourism in Kenya Tourists visit Kenya because of several reasons including its beautiful landscape, wildlife safari, the humid climatic conditions along the Kenyan Coast and the beautiful Coastal beaches. International tourist arrivals in Kenya have been increasing tremendously from 69 million in 1960 to 160 million in 1970, 458 million in 1990, and 625 million in 1998 (WTO, 1999). This increase has led to massive increase in sex tourism, a condition evidenced by inclusion of Kenya among the world’s leading sex tourism destinations (Vatican 2003; Boston Globe 1995; East African Standard 1995 and Chessim 1996). Although not officially stated, a good percentage of foreign tourists who visit Kenya often indulge in sex tourism during their trip (Chissam 1996; Sindiga 1999). These tourists mainly come from Germany, the UK, Switzerland, Italy and France. Others are from North America, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and European countries such as Spain and Sweden. Many of these countries have been generating sex tourists to some of the world’s renowned sex tourism destinations such as Thailand (Ryan and Hall 2001). Hence we can conclude that they are likely to engage in the same activity while in Kenya. Kenya is a developing country with agriculture contributing 24. 0% of GDP. Overall, Kenya’s economic performance has been declining since early 1990’s. The country’s per capita is about US$ 260 and more than 70% of Kenyan population currently lives below the poverty line; the worst hit are women (CBS 2001). The Economics of Tourism and Sex Industry The main economic activity in Kenya at independence in 1963 was Agriculture whereby the country relied on cash crop exports. After independence, the government tried to diversify the economy by implementing an â€Å"open door† economic policy to attract foreign investment. However, the limitations of agricultural and manufacturing sectors coupled with the appreciation of employment potential forced Kenyan government to turn to tourism as a central industry. Since 1987, tourism industry has been the leading foreign exchange earner, (CBS 2001) surpassing the traditional export crops of coffee and tea (Gakuhu1992; Weaver 1998 and CBS 2001). The industry employs about 1. 5 million Kenyans, approximately 8% of wage earning labor force (Weaver, 1998 and CBS 1999). In addition, Tourism is linked to many domestic industries and it is a potentially useful tool for generating development in neglected areas. The industry also contributes substantially to government revenues through taxes and import duties. Tourism is therefore officially promoted in Kenya as the main foreign exchange earner, source of employment and general development. Its significance on the Kenyan economy has a lot of bearing on tourism policies including those related to sex tourism. Sex Tourism Market on the Kenyan Coast Sex tourism is believed to be increasing at a high rate in Kenya. This is mainly because of the reality that there is a sex tourism market for female and male tourists. Female tourists, mainly from European countries come to Kenya to meet with local beach boys because they imagine that black men (or men of color) are stronger and more active in bed than men in their home countries. On the other hand, male tourists come to Kenya to meet with black women; mainly young girls who are believed to be ‘hot’ in bed. Child prostitution is also emerging in Kenya involving young boys and girls. This is commonly along the Kenyan coast where many children choose not to go to school but instead go to beaches in search for white men and women from European countries who exploit them sexually. The Kenyan Coast located along the Indian Ocean caters for about 66% of Kenyan tourism activities. Sex tourism is a major activity in Kenyan Coast (Sindiga 1999, Migot-Adhola et al 1982; Bechmann 1985). The Kenya coast as a tourism destination has existed since 1920 attracting mainly the white settlers and colonial government officials who sought holiday excitements. Major tourist attractions at the Kenyan coast include the wildlife, white sandy beaches, sun, sea, sex, scene features, diverse cultures, hospitable people, historical sites, national museums, national parks and reserves near the coast and tourism facilities of international standard such as hotels and airport. The presence and availability of Britons, Germans, Italians, Americans and others in Mombasa and other coastal towns in search of rest, fun and recreation has been the main factor attracting Kenyan girls and children to get involved in sex tourism (Sindiga 1999 and Chissim 1996). Different Forms of Sex Tourism Sex tourism sometimes involves production of videos featuring nude dancing in which no direct physical contact occurs; the tourists engage in voyeurism. There are also casual prostitutes or freelancers who move in and out of prostitution depending on their financial needs. In this case, sex tourism may be regarded as incomplete commercialized and the relationship between sex worker and the client may be ridden with ambiguities (Cohen 1982; Ryan and Hall 2001), particularly if the relationship shifts from an economic to a social base. However, some women entering into sex tourism in Kenya are not financially needy but only seeking fun and ‘social class’, whereby the community views women seen socializing with white men with high esteem and associate them with wealth and success in life. Some of these women have jobs in noble professions while others are college students. There is also the more formalized form of prostitution where the workers operate through intermediaries. Since sex tourism is illegal in Kenya, prostitutes use entertainment establishments such as night clubs, bars, beaches and other retail outlets to get customers. The other type of sex tourism is that of bonded prostitutes. This is more of slavery because it is enforced by people such as family members through abductions and kidnapping. Motivation Factors: Why do Tourists Look for Sex Most tourists tend to behave differently while in the countries they are touring. This is because there is an assurance of anonymity, which releases them from the usual restraints, which determine their behavior in their home countries. Tourism allows people â€Å"to lose their identity† and gives them the freedom to escape realities and live their fantasies. They spend more money, relax more, drink more, eat more and get involved in pleasures they would not at home. Men who would never visit brothels in their home countries will end up doing so in a foreign country where there is negligible chance of detection and penalty. For the same reason, women who would never have sex with boys young enough to be their grand children at their home country would do so in a foreign country. Tourists tend to seek commercial sex services in Kenya because the services are readily available and quite cheap compared to what they would pay for such services in their home countries. Such tourists are able to enjoy lifestyles they could never enjoy in their home countries. Furthermore, some of these tourists may hold menial jobs in their industrialized home countries but because of the disparity in salaries and high exchange rates, they may appear comparatively rich when in a poorer country like Kenya. They would therefore tend to spend their money in sexual activities that they associate with the rich and the famous in their home countries. Chissim has illustrated this in his interview with a German tourist visiting Kenya (Chissim 1996:18). â€Å"†¦. Morco said he was in Kenya for a month but within four days, he boasted of already fucking five girls. He said he fucked one girl on the beach but pretended that he had no money, so he got that one for free. Another girl he fucked on the beach for 100/- (about $1) and told her that he had no more money. The others he said he had to pay 200/- (about $3) †¦Ã¢â‚¬  For some of these tourists, Kenya represents Africa where life is perceived as raw and wild and a place where people are uncontrolled, liberal and polygamous. These reasons partly explain why some European women visit Kenya to look for sex from beach boys young enough to be their grandsons. It is estimated that more than 5% of all European women who visit Kenya go in search of sex, especially those from German, Switzerland and Italy (New York Times Feb. 14, 2002). Many Kenyan communities highly value virginity. This motivates tourists to have sex with younger girls; in the anticipation of having sex with a virgin who may be free from HIV/ AIDS. Some tourists engage in sex tourism because they may be fleeing from unhappy relationships at home and, perhaps, from women who may tend to question male domination. Male supremacy is perceived as a natural kind of authority in many cultures and world religions. Cultural values defining traditional male sex roles are power, dominance, strength and supremacy, while those defining female roles are submissiveness, weakness, inferiority and passivity. Women are perceived as property of men and sex as exchange of goods, which further entrenches male supremacy. This notion also teaches men that females are worthless and less deserving and may be treated as objects of men. The mafia- style drugs and sex industry along the Kenyan coast is another motivating factor for sex tourism. People with a lot of money are capable of bribing their way out of trouble if caught Such people are also responsible for organizing sex services for clients outside the country (Sindiga 1999; Chessim 1996). Supply Factors: Why Do Sex Workers Get Involved â€Å"Many times I don’t feel anything during sexual encounters. It is because I need money for myself and my children that I keep doing it. I have learned to do motions mechanically in order to satisfy my clients. If I do it well, they will come back and that means more money. † (Lin Lean Lim 2000:74). This Filipino woman quoted by Lin Lean Lim expresses the reason why many women from Third World countries practice sex tourism and their feelings about sex work. The main reason for sex tourism for many is poverty. Many Kenyan women are economically desperate. With the increasing rate of unemployment and high cost of living, prostitution is left as the only option for them to earn a living and support their children. Such women migrate to coast with hope of finding white tourists who can pay more for the services or even may end up marrying them. Some girls involved in sex tourism come from broken homes or very poor family backgrounds and are never taken to school to attain formal education. They resolve to sex prostitution as a means of supporting themselves economically. In Kenya, women are generally poorer than men because women have limited access to resources such as land, capital, farm equipments and agricultural inputs. Inheritance practices in most Kenyan communities seem to favor men. This means that men can easily have access to other productive resources because they can use land as security to borrow money if needed to purchase other productive resources. This option is normally not available for women. In many Kenyan communities, illiteracy levels in women are higher than those of men. This is because parents give priority to boy’s education particularly if resources are limited. Along the coast, education is not valued because people from these areas are used to receiving tokens and money from the tourists. Children of school going age therefore prefer to go to beaches in search for tourists who give them tokens in exchange for sex. Other factors affecting education for girls include unwanted pregnancies and the fact that they are forced to early marriages by their parents for economic gains. Kenyan women are discriminated against in most areas of formal employment and more often left with poorly paid jobs or no jobs at all. This makes prostitution an alternative. The HIV/AIDS scourge in Kenya is estimated to claim 500 lives daily leaving many orphans. The young children left become heads of the families and may often turn to sex tourism and prostitution as a means of earning a living to support their siblings. Impact of Sex Tourism in Kenya Sex tourism can be seen as both a risk and an opportunity. Most women in sex tourism face the risk of material loss because their clients may not pay them for the services (ref. The Marco case). Women are generally helpless against such exploitation and take it as part of their business. Sex workers face the risk of losing their money to thieves and police because they have to bribe their way out if caught as they mostly work at night. Women can sometimes face attacks by dissatisfied customers. These attacks may be in form of rape, cruelty, violence or even murder. â€Å"Monica Njeri was a 32- year old mother of two and a prostitute in Mombasa. She was brutally murdered by Frank Sundstrom a 19 year old USA navy service man who wanted the kind of sex that Monica could not provide. When he was not satisfied with merely sleeping, he woke up and tried to steal back the money he had given to her plus her own money but she woke up and caught him in the act. In ensuing struggle, he broke a beer bottle to make a weapon and repeatedly stabbed her until she died. † (Migot- Adhola 1982:74). Although Sundstrom admitted the offence, his only sentence was to sign a bond of 500/- (equivalent to US$46 at that time) to be of good conduct. Women in sex tourism industry and prostitution are continually exposed to sexually transmitted infections including HIV/AIDS. Many tourists may not accept to use protection such as condoms because they argue that it interrupts the flow of sex and carrying it may imply that one is promiscuous (Clift and Grabowski 1997). Sex workers are also faced with the danger of susceptibility to anal or cervical cancers, additionally, since many women are forced into sex work, many of them only work under influence of drugs and/or alcohol. This may lead to depression or alcohol addiction. Sex tourism has been blamed in Kenyan coast for increasing rate of school drop-out, poverty and illiteracy. This is mainly because children of school going age choose not to school but to follow tourists who lure them to sex tourism. However, some women that have risked sex tourism have been able to build better houses and invested in urban businesses. This is largely because earnings from prostitution are often more than those from other alternative employment opportunities open to women. Sex workers contribute to national economy by boosting profits of many transnational hotels and airlines, taxi drivers, brothel owners and many other intermediaries. The Kenyan police, the state, as well as the local and international enterprises are well aware that sex has a market value even though they proclaim that prostitution is immoral (Ryan and Hall 2001). Sex tourism has also contributed to cultural exchange because many sea workers are forced to learn foreign languages so that they can communicate with their clients. There are occasions when these temporary relationships ave led to marriages hence removing such girls from prostitution. The other positive impact is that health workers are encouraged to go for regular medical checkups because of the nature of their work, hence paying more attention to their health. Bibliography Awanohara 1975. Protesting the sexual imperialists. Far Eastern Economic Review, 87 (21st March) PP 5-6. Bishop, R. and Robinson, L. S. 1998. Night Ma rket: Sexual cultures and the Thai Economic Miracle, London and New York: Routledge. Boston Globe Thursday November 23, 1995 Cater, E. A 1989 â€Å"Tourism in less Developed Countries†. In Annals of Tourism Research Vol. 16 No. 4. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), 2001 Economic Survey of Kenya. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), 2002 Economic Survey of Kenya. Chissim F. 1996. An exploratory and Descriptive Research on Child Prostitution and Tourism in Kenya. EPAT Report, Nairobi. Clift S and Grabowski, 1997 Tourism and Health: Risks, Research and Responses. Biddles Ltd, Guilford and King’s Lynn Cohen, E 1988. Tourism and AIDS in Thailand. Annals of Tourism Research, 15 (4), PP 467-86 Cohen, E. 1982. Thai Girls and Farang men: The Edge of Ambiguity Annals of tourism Research, 9 (3) PP 403-28 Collins Patricia Hills 2000. The Sexual Politics of Black Womanhood. In Disch Estelle(ed). Reconstructing Gender. A multicultural Anthology. Mayfield publishing East Africa Standard September 12, 1995 Enloe, Cynthia (2000) â€Å"On the Beach; Sexism and Tourism† in Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of the International Politics: University of California press (2nd edition) Pp 19-41 Enloe, Cynthia 2002. The prostitute, the colonel and the Nationalist, in: Enloe, Cynthia: Maneuvers: The international politics of militarising women’s lives: London and Los Angeles: University of California Press (2nd Edition) pp 19-41 Ennew, J 1986. The sexual exploitation of children. Polity press, Cambridge Fish, M. 1984 Controlling Sex Sales to Tourists: Commenting on Graburn and Cohen. Annals of Tourism Research 11(4) 615-617. Gakahu C. G and Goode B. E 1992. Ecotourism and Sustainable Development in Kenya. Wildlife Conservation International. Graburn, N. H 1983. Tourism and prostitution, Annals of Tourism Research, 10:437-56 Hall C. M. 1994. Nature and Implications of Sex tourism in South-East Asia in: V. H. Kinnaird and D. R. Hall (ed) Tourism: A Gender Analysis Chichester, John Wiley PP-142-163 Harrison, David 1992, (ed) Tourism and the Less Developed Countries. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. Jommo, R. B (1987: Indigenous enterprise in Kenya's tourism industry Geneva: itineraires etudes du development , Institute Universitaire d'Etudes du Development). Lim, Lean Lin 1998. Whither the sex sector? Some policy considerations University of California press, pp 49-108. Migot-Adhola, S. E et al ,1982. Study of Tourism in Kenya with emphasis on the attitudes of the Residents of the Coast. Institute for Development Studies Consultancy Report No. 7, Nairobi University Montgomery Heather 2001. Child Sex Tourism in Thailand: In D. Harrison ed. Tourism and the Less Developed World Issues and Case Studies. Pruitt. D. and Lafont S. 1995 For Love and Money: romance tourism in Jamaica, Annals of Tourism research 22(2); 419 – 440. Richter, L. K. 1995. Exploring the political role of gender in tourism research. In W. F. Theobald (ed. ) Global Tourism in the next decade. Oxford Boston: Butterworth Heinemann. Ryan Chris and Hall C Michael (2001): Sex Tourism: Marginal People and Liminalities Routledge London Ryan Chris (1991) Tourism and Marketing. A symbiotic Relationship? Tourism Management Journal pp 101-109. Butterworth –Heinenmann Ryan. C. and Rachel Kinder (1996). Sex, tourism and sex tourism: fulfilling similar needs? Tourism Management 17(7): 507-518. Elservier Science Ltd . Sindiga Isaac 1999: Tourism and African Development: Change and Challenge of Tourism in Kenya. African Study Centre. Leiden The Nertherlands Truong, Thanh-Dam 1983. The dynamics of sex tourism. The case of South-east Asia. Development and change 14, 533-53. Weaver, D. B. 1998 Ecotourism in less developed world. CAB International World Tourism Organisation,1999. Yearbook of Tourism Statistics. WTO, Madrid, Spain. Young, G. 1973. Tourism: Blessings or Blight? Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin. The Vatican representative to WTO (2003). http://www. cathnews. com/news/304/43. php