Characteristics And Features Of Capital Markets Finance Essay

Characteristics And Features Of Capital Markets Finance Essay Capital market in any country consists of equity and the debt markets. Within the debt market there are govt securities and the corporate bond market. For developing countries, a liquid corporate bond market can play a critical role in supporting economic development as It supplements the banking system to meet corporate sector requirements for long-term capital investment and asset creation. It provides a stable source of finance when the equity market is volatile. A well structures corporate bond market can have implications on monetary policy of a country as bond markets can provide relevant information about risks to price stability Despite rapidly transforming financial sector and a fast growing economy Indias corporate bond market remains underdeveloped. It is still dominated by the plain vanilla bank loans and govt securities. The dominance of equities and banking system can be gauged from the fact that since 1996, Indias stock market capitalisation as a percentage of GDP has increased to 108% from 32.1%, while the banking sectors ratio to GDP has risen from 46.3% to 78.2% in 2008. In contrast, the bond markets grew to a modest 43.4 percent of GDP from 21.3 percent. Of this corporate bonds account for around 3.2% of GDP and government bond market accounts for 38.3% of GDP. (Graph1) Graph1 Source: RBI Indias government bond market stands ahead of most East-Asian emerging markets but most of it is used as a source of financing the deficit. The size of the Indian corporate debt market is very small in comparison with not only developed markets, but also some of the emerging market economies in Asia such as Malaysia, Thailand and China (Graph 2) Graph 2 Source: RBI Characteristics and features Innovation and a Plethora of options: Over time great innovations have been witnessed in the corporate bond issuances, like floating rate instruments, convertible bonds, callable (put-able) bonds, zero coupon bonds and step-redemption bonds. This has brought a variety that caters to a wider customer base and helps them maintain strike a risk-return balance. Preference for private placement: In India, issuers tend to prefer Private Placement over public issue as against USA where majority of corporate bonds are publically issued. In India while private placement grew 6.23 times to Rs. 62461.80 crores in 2000-01 since 1995-96, the corresponding increase in public issues of debt has been merely 40.95 percent from the 1995-96 levels. (graph 3).This leads to a crunch in market liquidity. A number of factors are responsible for such preference. First, the companies can avoid the lengthy issuance procedure for public issues. Second is the low cost of private placement. Third, the amounts that can be raised through private placements are typically larger. Fourth, the structure of debt can be negotiated according to the needs of the issuer. Finally, a corporate can expect to raise debt from the market at finer rates than the PLR of banks and financial institutions only with an AAA rated paper. This limits the number of entities that would find it profitable to enter the market directly. Even though the listing of privately placed bonds has been made mandatory, a proper screening mechanism is missing to take care of t he quality and transparency issues of private placement deals. Graph 3: Resource mobilization through debt Source: Equity and corporate debt report: RBI Graph 4 Source: RBI Dominance of financial institutions: The public issues market has over the years been dominated by financial institutions. The issuers who are the main participants in other corporate bond markets (that is, private sector, non-financial), represent only a small proportion of the corporate debt issues in the Indian market. Most of the privately placed bonds (which are about 90% of the total issue of corporate bonds) are issued by the financial and the public sector. (Graph 4) Inefficient secondary market: Further the secondary market for non-sovereign debt, especially corporate paper still remains plagued by inefficiencies. The primary problem is the total lack of market making in these securities, which consequently leads to poor liquidity. The biggest investors in this segment of the market, namely LIC, UTI prefer to hold these instruments to maturity, thereby holding the supply of paper in the market. The listed corporate bonds also trade on the Wholesale Debt Segment of NSE. But the percentage of the bonds trading on the exchange is small. Number of trades in debt compared to equity on average for August 2007 is just 0.003%. Graph 5 Figures are turnover on the wholesale debt market segment of NSE. Source: NSE Challenges and issues Dominance of private placements Dominance of large corporations. The credit rating system encourages only the large corporations with an AAA rating. (Table 1) Non-existent repo market for corporate bonds unlike the government bonds where there is an active repo market. Complicated and slow issuance procedure. Regulators in India are reactive rather than proactive. Illiquid secondary market- part of it is due to the fact that the number of issuers is low and part of it is due to the fact that the large investors prefer to hold these securities till maturity. Lack of formal market makers Limited demand for bond financing. The corporate debt market in India continues to be dominated by banks Limited investor base. A successful corporate bond market requires non banking investors which are limited and restricted in case of India. Inadequate credit assessment skills coupled with lack of transparency in trades There is a lot of confusion in the market regarding both regulations and the trading floors. To sum up, corporate bond the market in India suffers from deficiencies of participants, products and a comprehensive institutional framework. Table 1: Distribution of corporate bond issues by credit ratings Recent developments Given the importance of a well developed corporate bond market, the government, the RBI and SEBI have initiated measure to develop the corporate bond market in India. Most measures were aimed at improving the disclosure norms. The corporate bond market got its due attention by the government in the Union Budget of 2004-05where in the High Level Expert Committee on Corporate Bonds and Securitisation, chaired by Dr. R. H. Patil, was set up to look into the regulatory, legal, tax and mortgage design issues for the development of the corporate bond markets. The suggestions made by the committee were to develop the market infrastructure. Some of the suggestions made in the report include the removing the stamp duty, simplifying the issuance and disclosure norms, to bring the cost of corporate bonds at par with those of government securities by having similar TDS norms, enhance the investor base by encouraging participation of mutual funds, pension funds, insurance companies and gratuity funds and also retail participation through better primary and secondary markets. It also suggested a regulatory framework for a transparent and efficient secondary market for corporate bonds should be put in place by SEBI in a phased manner. It also recommended having a trade reporting system, introduction of repo in corporate bonds and better clearing and settlement system. Both RBI and SEBI have fundamentally agreed to these recommendations and steps are being taken to implement the same. Some of the steps include: Dematerialization of holdings, as required by SEBI since 2002; increased trading transparency from compulsory reporting of trades, linking local rating agencies to international rating agencies. In January 2007 SEBI was declared as the sole body responsible for regulating and coordinating the primary and secondary corporate bond market. It was a major step in remove the lack of coordination that existed due to two regulators (SEBI and RBI). In April 2007, SEBI permitted both BSE and NSE to set up trading platforms. In April 2007, SEBI reduced the shut period in corporate bonds, to align it with that applicable for Government Securities, and tradable lots in corporate bonds. In December 2007 SEBI made further amendments in issuance procedures to reduce the cost and ease issuance. It also gave green signal to FMMIDA to start trade reporting platform for CBs. Moreover, the government has made changes in the Companies Act and on simplification and reduction in the stamp duty w.e.f. 2007. From December 1, 2009 all corporate bonds traded OTC or on the debt segment of the stock exchanges will have to be cleared and settled through the National Securities Clearing Corporation Ltd (NSCCL) or the Indian Clearing Corporation Ltd (ICCL). It will help in eliminating the counter party risk in trade settlement and ensure a smooth receipt and payment system. In June 2008, the investment limit for FIIs in corporate debt was increased from $1.5 billion to $3 billion and further to $15 billion in January 2009. Ministry of Finance has hinted towards corporate market becoming Repo-able from 2010. Asia Bond Monitor- ADB, April 2008 Indias Bond Market-Development and Challenges Ahead, Stephen Wells and Lotte Schou-Zibell, Working paper series on regional economic integration no.22, ADB, December 2008. CS Update, august 2008, ICSI Equity and corporate debt report 2007, RBI NSE

Hiv/Aids in Africa Essay

Sub-Saharan Africa is the region of the world that is most affected by HIV/AIDS. The United Nations reports that an estimated 25.4 million people are living with HIV and that approximately 3.1 million new infections occurred in 2004. To put these figures in context, more than 60 percent of the people living with the infection reside in Africa. Even these staggering figures do not quite capture the true extent and impact that this disease causes on the continent. In 1998, about 200,000 Africans died as a result of various wars taking place on the continent. In that same year, more than 2 million succumbed to HIV/AIDS (Botchwey, 2000). The pandemic can be likened very much to the Bubonic Plague of the fourteenth century in terms of its killing ability. Both the Black Death and HIV/AIDS have wiped out a large proportion of the affected population. Until the AIDS pandemic, the world had not experienced a mass shrinking in their populations since the Black Death. However, unlike the Black Death, the pandemic has become much more than a health problem as it encompasses economic, social, political, psychological and cultural dimensions. (Arndt and Lewis, 2000) HIV/AIDS is so severe that it sends ripples to the edges of society, spreading its effects on families through communities to countries as a whole. Due to the fact that the pandemic is widespread in young and middle-aged adults the epidemic destroys the very core and nucleus of society as well as the foundation of the nation’s economy. The pandemic is not a disease for adults only as in 2005 alone, an estimated 2.3 million children globally were living with HIV (UNAIDS 2005). Hence, HIV/AIDS rids the continent of what is arguably its most important resource; human capital. This is especially true in locations exposed to rampant HIV prevalence rates. In such regions, the economic growth of the country is affected which makes the provision of highly needed social services more diffic ult. We realize that countries find themselves in this sadistic cycle, as by aggravating the already poor conditions individuals become more susceptible to the spread of HIV. The impact of AIDS may be felt as an immediate shock, as when a family loses a breadwinner, or in the case of a firm, an important employer leaves. However, at the national level the impact is felt as the gradual accrual of losses. The toll of HIV/AIDS on households can be very severe. Many families lose their bread winners. Many of those dying have surviving partners who are themselves infected and are in need of care. They leave behind children grieving and struggling to survive without the care of the parents. The disease strips the family assets further impoverishing the poor. In many cases, the presence of AIDS means that the household eventually dissolves, as the parents die and children are sent to relatives for care and upbringing. The gravity of the impact depends not only on the numbers infected and directly affected by the pandemic, but also on the resources available to manage the situation. This may be resources accessible at family, community or national level. The pandemic also has dire impacts on the demographics of a country. This impact is usually more difficult to assess as it is largely dependent on data from birth and death certificates, and health records, all of which are poor or almost non-existent in that part of the world. Due to this, life expectancy at birth has fallen, dramatically, and the population structure has changed shape eroding years of progress made by many African countries. This obviously has implications for growth. (World Bank, 2000) Despite its serious implications, however, original research on the impact of AIDS is scarce. The purpose of this research is to analyze the effects of the HIV/AIDS epidemic on the level of human capital in Sub-Saharan Africa. The basic question surrounding this study is â€Å"Does HIV/AIDS have a negative impact on human capital accumulation†. We believe that it does have a negative impact on human capital accumulation as resources, effort, and time are diverted to attend to the various issues associated with the pandemic. In an attempt to answer this question, the study will specify human capital as primary school enrollment. We do this because this is the level of schooling at which an individual receives basic education. Basic education is the formal education deemed necessary for somebody to function properly in society. Development economists have regarded basic education as a priority for developing countries the benefits of which include reduction of disease through knowledge of hygiene and nutrition and better understanding of non-violent ways to solve problems. In this light, many African countries have implemented free universal basic education programs that aim at encouraging households to enroll their children in school. This is the primary way in which the impact of the pandemic may be offset. This is just one of the many dynamics of the issue of the HIV/AIDS and human capital.

Music Role of a Composer Essay

A person who creates the music the music we listen to by writing a piece of music for theatre, radio, film, TV and computer games where music is needed is known as composer. Composing of music has played a vital role in the lives of composers making others to be considered as princes of music like Josquin and Palestrina yet others had unique styles of composing their music. The roles of a composer are to create music by creating situations in which sounds will basically be. A composer has to devise strategies to ensure coordination of elements of performers set into motion. This is achieved by ensuring that proper notation of music has been done in order to accurately direct musicians. The task of a composer is to write an original piece of music fitting for a specific mission after which the composition will then be performed by musicians. The music composed might be having lyrics or just instrumental. Furthermore, it can be either in the form of country, classical jazz or even folk. The work of composer improved a great deal between 900 to 1820. in the 900’s, composers used to create music in that there is a solo singer and choirs or more probably in an Organum style . In the process of change, music styles became more complex and multiple parts were used for different instruments and this help to bring harmony. The recorder, lute and the invention of printing press that brought about standardization of musical notation. Later the Organum was modified into the modern harmony of today by use of a figured bass to accompany a melody. The introduction of keyboard in equal temperament enabled different keys to be used without alteration. Finally, during the classical period, the composers fostered for loyalty or nobility of the time. The composers of the time were offered with creative tools to build many accredited pieces of music given that the concept of music was abstract and detached allowing them to explore the music industry. Josquin Desprez (1440-1521) was the master of composing in his time . He created his music with careful words which were of marvelous simplicity and sophistication. Ludwig Van Beethoven (1770-1827) was the instrumentals in bringing into being the romantic music era. These two men brought about great change in the musical industry and meaning to composers without fear of experimenting. References Fulcher, J. The Composer as an Intellectual. Music and Ideology in France 1914-1940. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005 Smith J. & Carlson B. The Gift of Music: Great Composers and Their Influence. Crossway, 1995

Jane Eyre, Weathering Heights, And Sense And Sensibility

fledgling baker flew out the door, past any customers sipping tea, with the owner nipping at her heels while cursing in French and Creole. It was known throughout the Quarter that the madam demanded perfection in petit fours and unquestioning dedication from her staff. In exchange one of the luckier neophytes had once told March, She coaxes us through the birth pains on our journey to become superb French-educated pastry chefs extraordinaire, that is if we survive her wrath. The young woman who had dashed out screaming about being beaten, which was not true, and inept at baking, which possibly was, would not be seen again at least at Le Petite Patisseries. To the right of March s office sat the shop of an antiquarian, a seller of†¦show more content†¦If you were to walk down the service alley at the rear of their stores, you might walk right by Mr. Brockman’s other enterprise. It was nondescript, but once inside another story would unfold. Unless you had the righ t credentials, you’d be turned away by a gatekeeper straight from a James Cagney gangster movie, complete with a cigarette ready to expel an inch of ash dangling from the corner of his grimaced mouth. Yet, if you knew someone who could give you the right information or you had local connections, John Brockman, bookmaker, money lender and entrepreneur would be willing do to business. The steady stream of clients who walked to the back alley came from the top echelon in the city, like the Parish President, owner of the city’s exclusive hospitals and CEO’s of all the worker’s unions. Those unfortunates who stumbled around the French Quarter at all hours wouldn’t have thought to enter Brockman’s establishment and if they did give the door a knock, they’d quickly realize the dress code required was that of Antoine’s ritzy restaurant. With the Great Depression still gripping a good part of America, there was no effect on Brockman’s business enterprises; sin in all of its regalia never vanishes completely even when money was in scarce supply as it did then and remains the